Gender

Understanding Gender as a Category of Stratification

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on variables such as class, caste, race, ethnicity, and gender. Among these, gender is a uniquely pervasive and cross-cutting axis of inequality that operates across all other stratification systems. It is not merely a reflection of biological difference but a deeply institutionalized form of social inequality based on the constructed meanings attached to being male, female, or any gender identity. stratification by gender implies that individuals are ranked unequally in society solely based on their gender identity, often resulting in systemic disparities in access to resources, power, prestige, and life opportunities.
Sociologically, gender is understood as a social construct, distinct from biological sex. While sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, gender refers to the roles, behaviors, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. As Simone de Beauvoir famously asserted, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,” highlighting how gender is produced through socialization and institutional arrangements rather than biology. Thus, gender stratification involves the process through which societies value and organize gender differences in a way that privileges men and masculinity over women and femininity. This ranking is reinforced by ideologies, norms, customs, and state policies, all of which contribute to making gender an enduring basis of inequality.

Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Stratification

A wide array of sociological theories has engaged with the question of gender inequality and stratification. Structural-functionalists like Talcott Parsons and Kingsley Davis viewed the gendered division of labor as a functional necessity for the smooth operation of society. According to Parsons, men naturally took up instrumental roles (economic provision, authority), while women performed expressive roles (nurturance, emotional care), particularly within the family. This view, while attempting to explain gender roles, has been widely criticized for legitimizing and naturalizing inequality. It fails to account for how these roles are enforced through power rather than being chosen or biologically determined.
In contrast, conflict theory and feminist approaches oer a more critical understanding. From the conflict perspective, gender roles are a reflection of power dynamics, with men historically positioned to control resources and institutions, thereby subjugating women. Feminist sociology—ranging from liberal and Marxist to radical and postmodern feminism—oers nuanced insights into how gender is a structural principle of inequality. Marxist feminism, for instance, locates women’s oppression in the evolution of private property and capitalist production. Friedrich Engels, in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, argued that women’s subordination began with the advent of private property, where women were conned to reproductive labor to ensure legitimate heirs and the transmission of property through patrilineality.
Radical feminism, on the other hand, sees patriarchy as a system of male domination that operates independently of class. It emphasizes how the control of women’s bodies, sexuality, and reproduction is central to male power. Sylvia Walby’s theory of patriarchy identifies six structures—household production, paid work, the state, male violence, sexuality, and cultural institutions—that operate simultaneously to perpetuate male domination and stratify gender relations. Intersectional feminist theories, particularly those developed by Black feminists and scholars like Kimberlé Crenshaw, point out that gender stratification is not uniform and is experienced differently by women depending on race, class, caste, sexuality, and ability. This concept of “intersectionality” helps explain the multiple and interlocking systems of oppression that structure people’s lives.

Mechanisms and Institutions of Gender Stratification

Gender stratification is maintained and reproduced through multiple social institutions. The family is the primary site where gender roles are inculcated from early childhood. Through differential treatment, children learn what is considered ‘appropriate’ behavior for boys and girls. Girls are often socialized into domestic and caring roles, while boys are encouraged to be assertive, independent, and public-oriented. This socialization is reinforced in educational institutions, where textbooks, curricula, and teacher behavior often reflect gender biases. Boys are often encouraged to pursue science, technology, and leadership, while girls are channeled into arts, care-oriented professions, and homemaking.
The labor market is another powerful site of gender stratification. The sexual division of labor ensures that women are overrepresented in low-paid, insecure, and often invisible forms of labor. From domestic work and caregiving to informal sector jobs, women’s labor is undervalued and frequently unpaid. Even in formal employment, women face occupational segregation, lower wages, glass ceilings, and hostile work environments. The concept of the “feminization of labor” captures the trend of increasing reliance on women’s labor in flexible, informal, and often exploitative conditions. This is particularly evident in developing countries, where structural adjustment policies and neoliberal reforms have led to the growth of export-oriented industries that rely on cheap female labor.
Moreover, the state plays a crucial role in either challenging or reinforcing gender stratification. State policies related to property rights, family law, reproductive rights, and political representation often reflect patriarchal values. In many contexts, laws have historically denied women equal rights to property, inheritance, and custody. Even when legal equality is granted, implementation remains weak, and gender biases persist within legal institutions. Cultural and religious institutions also play a significant role in reproducing gender hierarchies by prescribing rigid gender norms and upholding traditions that restrict women’s autonomy and mobility.

Gender Stratification in the Indian Context

In India, gender stratification operates within a deeply entrenched system of caste, religion, and community-based patriarchy. The Indian social structure is shaped by what sociologist Uma Chakravarti calls “Brahmanical patriarchy,” which combines caste purity with gender control. Women’s sexuality is tightly regulated through practices like endogamy, dowry, child marriage, and seclusion, all of which aim to preserve caste boundaries and male dominance. Religious texts such as the Manusmriti institutionalized these norms, declaring women subordinate to their fathers, husbands, and sons throughout their lives. The denial of education, inheritance, and independence to women was not incidental but ideologically justified.
The colonial state further entrenched patriarchal norms by codifying personal laws that made male authority legally enforceable. The Hindu Code Bill debates, for example, were marked by resistance to granting equal property and divorce rights to women. Post-independence reforms such as the Hindu Succession Act and protection laws for women have improved legal equality, but social practices often lag behind. Practices such as dowry, female foeticide, honor killings, and the marginalization of widows are stark indicators of gender inequality. Even among tribal communities, often idealized for their gender egalitarianism, growing integration with capitalist and state systems has led to increasing gender disparities.
The Indian state’s attempts at gender empowerment through policies such as reservation in Panchayati Raj institutions, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, and schemes for maternal health and skill development show some positive impact. However, patriarchal attitudes remain deeply embedded in institutions, including the judiciary, police, and media. Women’s safety in public spaces, political under representation, and economic dependence continue to be major challenges. Additionally, trans persons, non-binary individuals, and gender-nonconforming people face acute stratification through legal invisibility, stigma, and violence. The 2019 Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, while a step forward in legal recognition, has been criticized for its inadequate provisions and lack of community consultation.

Cultural Dimensions and the Role of Ideology

Culture plays a significant role in legitimizing and naturalizing gender stratification. Media, religion, literature, and folklore often reinforce stereotypes of ideal femininity and masculinity. Women are typically portrayed as nurturing, emotional, passive, and family-oriented, while men are shown as rational, assertive, and independent. Such cultural constructions are deeply ideological and serve to justify unequal treatment. Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of “symbolic violence” is relevant here—gender inequalities are not just enforced through coercion but also internalized as natural and legitimate. Thus, women may themselves endorse norms that restrict their mobility or choices, believing them to be virtuous or culturally appropriate.
Education systems, too, often reproduce gender ideologies. Textbooks and classroom interactions subtly reinforce the message that men are leaders and creators, while women are helpers and supporters. In religious teachings across many faiths, women are often depicted as the ‘weaker sex,’ morally inferior or in need of male protection. This cultural indoctrination ensures that gender stratification remains normalized and unchallenged in everyday life. Even progressive reforms face backlash if they appear to disrupt established gender roles, as seen in the resistance to women entering religious shrines, pursuing certain professions, or asserting autonomy in relationships.

Challenges to and Transformations in Gender Stratification

Despite the deep-rooted nature of gender stratification, it is not unchangeable. Social movements, legal reforms, education, and economic transformation have all contributed to challenging gender hierarchies. The women’s movement in India, particularly since the 1970s, has brought attention to issues of violence, labor rights, reproductive rights, and political representation. Campaigns against dowry, rape, and sexual harassment have led to changes in both public discourse and legal frameworks. The visibility of women in education, employment, and public life has significantly increased, although gaps remain.
The emergence of queer and trans movements has further expanded the discourse on gender, challenging the binary system and advocating for a more inclusive understanding of identity. The Supreme Court’s NALSA judgment (2014) recognized the right to self-identify one’s gender, and the 2018 decriminalization of homosexuality marked a landmark shift in Indian legal history. However, social acceptance remains limited, and many individuals continue to face exclusion and violence based on their gender identity and expression.
Technological changes, globalization, and social media have also contributed to transforming gender norms. Women are increasingly asserting their voices in the digital public sphere, forming networks, sharing experiences, and mobilizing for change. Yet, these spaces also reflect the contradictions of contemporary gender politics, where empowerment coexists with new forms of misogyny, trolling, and surveillance.

Conclusion: Towards a Just and Gender-Equal Society

The social stratification of gender is one of the most enduring and complex forms of inequality in human societies. It is sustained not just through overt discrimination but also through subtle, institutional, and ideological mechanisms. While the origins of gender inequality lie in historical systems like patriarchy and capitalism, its persistence is ensured by everyday social practices and cultural norms. However, gender is also a site of resistance, negotiation, and transformation. Understanding the dynamics of gender stratification—through critical theory, intersectional analysis, and empirical observation—is essential for dismantling it. Sociology, by uncovering the structures and ideologies that produce gender inequality, can play a powerful role in envisioning and creating a more equitable society for all genders.

References

• Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. New York: Vintage, 1989
• Engels, Friedrich. The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1902.
• Walby, Sylvia. Theorizing Patriarchy. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990.
• Chakravarti, Uma. Gendering Caste: Through a Feminist Lens. Kolkata: Stree, 2003.