Folkways And Mores

Introduction: The Centrality of Norms in Social Life

In the discipline of sociology, the concept of norms holds a central place in understanding the organization and functioning of societies. Norms are the social rules that dene acceptable and expected behavior within a group or society. They represent the shared expectations and standards that guide how individuals act, think, and interact with each other. Without norms, social life would descend into chaos, as they provide the necessary framework for order, stability, and predictability. From the mundane activities of daily life to significant decisions in institutions, norms regulate our conduct and ensure coherence within the social fabric.
The sociological study of norms extends far beyond the identification of rules. It includes an analysis of how norms are formed, transmitted, enforced, internalized, and changed over time. Additionally, sociologists distinguish between different types of norms based on their intensity, consequences for violation, and cultural significance. Among these, the two most fundamental are folkways and mores, concepts introduced and elaborated by William Graham Sumner in the early 20th century. Together, these classifications help us understand not only conformity and social control but also deviance and social change.

The Nature and Function of Social Norms

Norms in sociology refer to the expected behaviors, values, and conduct deemed acceptable by a social group or society. Derived from the Latin word norma, meaning a carpenter’s square or rule, the term signifies the standard by which actions are measured. Norms can be both prescriptive, telling people what they should do, and prohibitive, outlining behaviors to avoid. These standards are not just abstract ideas but deeply embedded in cultural practices and daily life.
Importantly, norms are not static or universally codified. Many norms are unwritten and informally enforced, yet are powerful enough to regulate behavior effectively. For instance, queuing in public spaces, dressing appropriately for occasions, or greeting elders with respect are all guided by social norms, though none of these are necessarily part of legal mandates. Norms vary across cultures, change over time, and are subject to negotiation, especially in modern, heterogeneous societies. While some norms are enforced through formal means such as laws and regulations, most are maintained through informal sanctions like praise, ridicule, or ostracism.
The primary function of norms lies in regulating social interaction and maintaining social order. They provide the behavioral templates individuals use to navigate complex social settings. Moreover, through the process of socialization, individuals internalize these norms, incorporating them into their sense of self and conscience. This internalization is so deep that following norms often feels like a personal moral obligation rather than an external imposition. Through social control, norms also ensure that individuals do not deviate significantly from expected behavior, reinforcing conformity and punishing deviation.

Types of Norms: From Folkways to Laws

Sociologists classify norms into a hierarchy, based on their significance and the intensity of sanctions attached to them. These include folkways, mores, customs, fashions, institutions, and laws. Each category plays a distinct role in the regulation of social behavior.

• Folkways refer to the informal, everyday customs and routines that guide behavior in ordinary interactions.
• Mores are norms with strong moral connotations and are critical to societal well-being.
• Customs are traditional practices passed down over generations, forming the basis of many folkways and mores.
• Fashions represent socially approved but temporary changes in behavior or appearance.
• Institutions are formalized norms embodied in organized structures like marriage, education, or religion.
• Laws are norms formally enacted and enforced by the state.

Among these, folkways and mores are especially important because they operate at the core of cultural life, influencing both minor behaviors and critical moral decisions. Understanding them allows us to comprehend how societies function on both superficial and foundational levels.

Folkways: The Informal Patterns of Everyday Life

Folkways are the mildest form of norms and pertain to the customary ways of doing things in a society. They are informal social practices, often taken for granted, that shape daily interactions and routine behavior. Folkways are not morally loaded; their violation does not usually attract severe disapproval or punishment. Instead, breaches of folkways may result in mild sanctions such as awkwardness, embarrassment, or polite correction. Examples include table manners, dress codes, forms of greeting, and conversational etiquette.

As W.G. Sumner emphasized in his foundational work Folkways (1906), these norms are developed “out of experience” and passed down through tradition. They emerge not by deliberate planning but as unconscious responses to recurring situations. For example, in Indian society, touching the feet of elders as a sign of respect is a folkway. While it is widely practiced and encouraged, its violation does not lead to serious consequences—at most, it may be seen as disrespectful or indicative of poor upbringing.

Folkways vary significantly across cultures and are among the most context-dependent norms. What is polite in one culture may be considered rude in another. For instance, maintaining eye contact is seen as a sign of confidence in Western societies but can be perceived as disrespectful in some Asian cultures. Despite being relatively flexible and adaptable, folkways serve as crucial instruments for social cohesion, ensuring that daily life ows smoothly and predictably.

Mores: The Moral Core of Normative Order

Mores (pronounced morays) represent the morally significant norms that are essential for the survival and ethical foundation of a society. These norms go beyond mere customs and are often associated with deeply held societal values. Violations of mores elicit strong social sanctions, including ostracism, condemnation, or legal penalties. In some cases, mores are institutionalized into laws—highlighting their gravity.
While folkways pertain to how we dress or eat, mores govern our moral conduct—what is considered right or wrong, just or unjust. In many traditional Hindu communities, for example, eating beef is a more, not just a dietary choice. Violating this norm can result in excommunication or social isolation. Similarly, norms against incest, theft, murder, or adultery are universally recognized as mores because their violation threatens the moral fabric of society.
Sumner described mores as “folkways with the element of group welfare added to them.” In other words, all mores are folkways, but not all folkways are mores. The difference lies in degree—mores are the folkways society considers vital. Kimball Young and Raymond Mack (1972) argued that while folkways may attract only mild disapproval when violated, mores are strictly enforced due to their foundational role in societal order. Broom and Selznick (1963) further emphasized that the intensity of feeling and the methods of enforcement distinguish mores from folkways.

The Relationship Between Folkways and Mores

Though distinct, folkways and mores are closely related and form a continuum rather than two completely separate categories. Folkways often evolve into mores over time as they acquire moral significance. For instance, what begins as a fashion trend may become a widespread cultural expectation and, eventually, a moral norm. Similarly, certain mores may lose their intensity and become simple folkways, especially in contexts of rapid social change.
Sociologists debate whether these two categories should be treated as separate or as different degrees of the same concept. While Sumner viewed mores as a subtype of folkways, many later scholars prefer to distinguish them for clarity. Regardless, both types of norms are essential for maintaining social order and cultural identity. They regulate behavior, provide a sense of belonging, and oer guidelines for acceptable conduct.

Norms, Socialization, and Social Control

Norms are central to the process of socialization, the mechanism through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and expected behaviors of their society. From early childhood, individuals absorb social norms through family, peer groups, educational institutions, media, and religion. This process ensures that norms are not perceived as external constraints but as part of one’s moral compass.
Once internalized, norms influence behavior even in the absence of external monitoring. For instance, a person may feel guilty for lying or skipping a social obligation, not because of any legal repercussion, but due to internalized mores. In this way, norms act as a form of social control, guiding individuals toward socially acceptable behavior and discouraging deviance.
In situations where norms are not followed, societies deploy sanctions—ranging from informal (ridicule, gossip, praise) to formal (nes, imprisonment). These sanctions serve as both deterrents and reinforcements, maintaining social equilibrium. The distinction between folkways and mores is crucial in understanding the type and severity of sanctions likely to be applied.

Deviance and the Breakdown of Norms

Despite their regulating power, norms are not always adhered to. The concept of deviance refers to behaviors or actions that violate social norms. Deviance is not inherently negative; rather, it reflects the dynamic and contested nature of norms. What is considered deviant in one society or time period may be normalized in another. For example, premarital cohabitation, once strongly condemned in many societies, has become more accepted in modern urban cultures.
Norm violations can also result in anomie, a state of normlessness or ambiguity in norms. Sociologist Robert K. Merton conceptualized anomie as the disjunction between culturally approved goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. Anomie arises particularly in times of rapid social change or cultural conflict, when traditional norms lose their relevance and no new norms emerge to replace them. This creates confusion, alienation, and sometimes even social unrest.

Norms Across Cultures: Diversity and Ethnocentrism

The study of norms across societies reveals an astonishing diversity. Practices considered normal in one culture may be taboo in another. For example, norms surrounding marriage, food, sexuality, and dress vary greatly. In some cultures, covering one’s head is a sign of respect; in others, it may signify oppression. These variations highlight the importance of cultural relativism, the idea that norms must be understood within their cultural context.
However, the tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one’s own—known as ethnocentrism—can hinder sociological understanding. For instance, a Western observer might view arranged marriages as oppressive without understanding the cultural values of familial bonding and stability embedded in that practice. Therefore, sociologists strive to approach cultural norms with sensitivity, avoiding moral judgment and embracing analytical neutrality.

Conclusion

Norms, whether informal like folkways or morally binding like mores, are the foundational building blocks of society. They structure behavior, provide order, and maintain the continuity of culture. The classification of norms into types—especially the distinction between folkways and mores—enables sociologists to study how societies regulate behavior, ensure conformity, and respond to change.
Understanding norms also illuminates the processes of social control, deviance, and cultural variation. As societies modernize and globalize, norms continue to evolve, reflecting shifting values and identities. Yet, their core function remains the same: to bind individuals together in a shared framework of meaning and behavior. The sociological study of norms, therefore, offers profound insights into how human societies function, adapt, and thrive.

References

1. Sumner, W.G. (1906). Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. Ginn & Co.: Boston.
2. Young, Kimball & Mack, Raymond. (1972). Systematic Sociology: Text and Readings. Aliated East-West Press: New Delhi.
3. Broom, Leonard & Selznick, Philip. (1963). Sociology: A Text with Adapted Readings. Harper & Row: New York.
4. Merton, Robert K. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure. Free Press: New York.